By Robert Oliphant

There's nothing funny about the study of humor.Freud, Bergson, George Merideth, Arthur Koestler — they've all tried to explain why the ability to laugh is important to our species and why the inability to get the multiple-meaning "point" of a joke is customarily interpreted as a symptom of mental weakness, be it immaturity in the young or senile dementia in the old.On our streets and highways, for instance, how many American teenagers can say with confidence whether SLOW means the same thing in "slow....children at play" as it does in"slow.... trucks ahead."

It's very difficult to explain, let alone demonstrate via a dictionary, the point of a particular joke, especially to a literal-minded 4^th grader.Practically considered, though, puns are multiple-meaning forms whose dictionary definitions invite attention, as in Benjamin Franklin's statement to his fellow revolutionaries that "we must all HANG together or we will most assuredly HANG separately" [capitalization added].

Fourth graders as pun detectives. . . .As far as HANG goes, we can fairly refer our 4^th grader to a desk dictionary like Webster's New World Collegiate, 3^rd edition, where under HANG he or she will first find "to put to death by tying a rope around the body and suddenly suspending the body" listed under Definition 3, followed by (much further down) "to stick or remain together" under Definition 1 of the combination "hang together."Going further, we might ask our 4^th grader whether or not Definition 6, "to paste wallpaper to walls" might also be included in the multiple-meaning partnership between definitions 3 and 1 that Franklin drew upon. (By way explicit help for4^th graders pursuing this line of inquiry, see Appendix One:Double Meanings and Dictionary Definitions.)

Appendix Two takes our multiple-meaning partnership into multiple-choice testing territory.It offers the test taker a number of sentences, each of which contains a pun followed by three dictionary definitions.From these three definitions the test taker, as with our Franklin example, is asked to choose which ones work together to create the puns double entendre (literally "doubly meant"), and which one doesn't.Along the same lines Appendix Three offers a number of other punning sentences whose implications a 4^th grader can explore via the multiple-definition word entries in his or her family dictionary.

Literal-mindedness, multiple meanings, and high speed reading. . . . A sense of humor is certainly not synonymous with intelligence.But it certainly requires us to recognize the disparity between what words "say" individually and what they mean to members of a speech community, large or small.Hence the education process as both Vygotsky and Bertrand Russell put it, is primarily a rehabilitation process in which the patient is gradually cured of childish literal mindedness.Similarly, the re-education process for precociously senile older Americans is one which seeks to cure the patient of "second childhood" literal mindedness, as indicated by the use of jokes and proverbs as diagnostic tools in the Reality Orientation programs developed a few years back by the Veterans Administration.

Call them word analogies, metaphors, or figures of speech, it's the multiple-meanings of words that lie at the heart of reading and listening perceptiveness — measurably so — for both children and adults.

As suggested here, reading tests are fundamentally tests of multiple-meaning perceptiveness.To read a page quickly is just the same as getting the point of a joke quickly, which is to say that the high-speed reader must be able to weigh very rapidly a host of semantic and syntactic possibilities before settling on the interpretation of one sentence, humorous or profound, and then moving on to the next one. Practically considered, the ability often shows up as "reading with expression" (as opposed to "calling words") or the knack of memorizing poetry.One way or another, it's visible, testable, and socially significant — to the degree that to accuse an American of lacking a sense of humor constitutes a deeply wounding insult that is almost unforgivable.

From puns (paronomasia) up the scale to irony ("meaning one thing but saying another"), the long slow process of becoming civilized requires us to learn the art of reading between the lines, as opposed to letting sensory stimuli wash over us as passive commodity entertainment objects.Hence the socially important role of literature in our childhood and in our personal lives, along with its crucial importance in a nation's school curriculum as a tool for developing national multi-meaning vocabulary power and perceptiveness.

TO CONCLUDE. . . . Important though a nation's songs may be, its sense of humor is even more important.As most parents will agree, I'm sure, we cannot expect too much from our 4^th graders in the humor department.But it is certainly a joy to see them grow in multiple-meaning perceptiveness and the social skills which it nurtures.Thanks to language and the multiple-meaning dimension of its vocabulary, we're the only species on the planet that truly laughs (hyenas excluded).Let's hope we keep doing it, chuckling or chortling — especially when it involves laughing at ourselves.

APPENDIX ONE. . . . Double meanings and dictionary definitions — a fourth grader's introduction to how punning sentences work

In print or in speech, jokes are expressed in sentences. Practically considered, jokes with puns in them make sense to us, especially if we look the punning word up in a family dictionary like Webster's New World Collegiate (WNW), which defines PUN as "the use of a word or words which are formed or sounded alike in such a way as to juxtapose two or more of the possible applications of the word or words, usually in a humorous way."

For our purposes we can describe a pun more simply as "the use of a word in a way that brings together (especially in the mind of the reader or listener) two of its possible meanings."Here's a sample sentence in which the punning word has been capitalized.

New metal dog leashes are now being sold at Safeway and other American CHAIN stores."

Primary sentence meaning. . . . Just for fun, we can imagine the mind of a reader as being like a computer trying to figure out the meaning of CHAIN in this sentence by looking it up in a dictionary like WNW, which lists eight different definitions for it ("definition" is the dictionary equivalent of "meaning").Since the sentence uses CHAIN in connection with sold, Safeway, and stores, our imaginary computer would logically (just like us) select Definition 7 "a number of stores, restaurants, etc. owned by one company," rather than Definition 8 "a linkage of atoms in a molecule."

So it's not surprising that some reading tests today use questions like this. . . . QUESTION:Please indicate which of the following dictionary definitions best fits the sentence. New metal dog leases are now being sold at Safeway and other American CHAIN stores. . . . (a) "a number of stores, restaurants, etc., owned by one company." . . . or (b) "a linkage of atoms in a molecule."Nor is it surprising that many parents and teachers compose practice questions like this one to help children develop their reading and test taking skills.

Secondary-association sentence meaning. . . . But the human mind is still far more complex and clever than that of a computer.This is to say that a flesh-and-blood reader would also recognize the potential connection of CHAIN with metal, dog, and leashes, and link it also to a secondary-association sentence meaning as represented by Definition 1 "a flexible series of joined links, usually of metal, used to pull, confine, etc. or to transmit power."Such a recognition would probably be signaled by laughter or at least a smile, as opposed to a puzzled expression and a statement like "I don't get the point."PUN, incidentally, goes back to Latin punctum, which means "point."

Our ability as human beings to recognize "two or more" meanings at the same time goes far beyond that of our most powerful computers, to the degree that it's impossible to imagine one answering the following three questions based upon our CHAIN sentence and its three WNW definitions:(a) a flexible series of joined links, usually of metal, used to pull, confine, etc. or to transmit power. . . . (b) a number of stores, restaurants, etc., owned by one company. . . . (c) a linkage of atoms in a molecule.

Q1. . . . Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of CHAIN which best fits its primary use in the sentence.

Q2. . . .Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of CHAIN which fits its secondary association use in the sentence.

Q3. . . . Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of CHAIN which LEAST fits its use in the sentence.

Exploring the wide, wide world of puns and humor. . . . As a literacy form the pun has been defined as "the lowest form of humor."Certainly our ability to use a dictionary with spelling puns indicates they are relatively easy to understand, as opposed to the fanciful genius of Bob Newhart, Robin Williams, Jonathan Winters, and others.On the other hand, as we've seen, punning sentences are still a uniquely human form of expression, given the fact that so far neither computers nor chimpanzees are much good at cracking verbal jokes.

By way of warning: Punning, like taking drugs or overeating, can be addictive.So try to understand how they work and maybe compose a few of your own.After this move up the literary scale without hitting too many false notes, as a punster might put it.Irony, parody, satire, comedy — they're out there in your future just waiting to entertain you and help you grow.

APPENDIX TWO. . . . A pun-based multiple-meaning recognition test for fourth graders.

Dear Test Taker. . . . This test will give you a chance to display your own personal sense of humor by indicating how well you understand jokes in which a key word has a double meaning. . . . Each group of three questions begins with a target joke-sentence in which the punning word is capitalized.After this you are first asked (Q1) to designate which of the three definitions BEST fits the primary use of the word in the sentence, followed by a request to designate the definition which fits its secondary-association use, and then a request to designate the definition which DOESN'T FIT at all.Here's an example of the primary-secondary-doesn't fit sequence of questions.

Target sentence and punning word definitions: "New metal dog leashes are now being sold at Safeway and other American CHAIN stores." . . . . Punning word dictionary definitions: . . . (a) a flexible series of joined links, usually of metal, used to pull, confine, etc. . . . (b) a linkage of atoms in a molecule. . . . (c) a number of stores, restaurants, etc., owned by one company.

Q1: Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of the capitalized word which best fits its use as a primary definition in the target sentence. . . . CORRECT ANSWER: (c)..

Q2: Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of the capitalized word which fits its use as a secondary-associationwordin the target sentence. . . . CORRECT ANSWER: (a).

Q3: Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of the capitalized word which "doesn't fit its use as a primary definition in the target sentence. . . . CORRECT ANSWER: (b). . . . Explanatory note: The sentence mentions metal and stores but says nothing about atoms and molecules.

A 15-ITEM PUN AWARENESS TEST

Here are sentences, definitions, and questions (for convenience some definitions have been shortened).Correct answers appear below.

Sentence A: An archeologist complained that because of bad publicity his career was in RUINS. . . . Definitions: (a) the remains of a fallen city. . . . (b) a person regarded as being a wreck of what he had been. . . . (c) a complete loss of position.

Q1: Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of the capitalized word which best fits its use as a primary definition in the target sentence.

Q2: Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of the capitalized word which fits its use as a secondary-associationwordin the target sentence.

Q3: Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of the capitalized word which "doesn't fit" its use as a primary definition in the target sentence.

Sentence B:Legislation for the preservation of waterfowl was not discussed in Congress today because everyone tried to DUCK the issue. . . . Definitions" (a) a relatively small waterfowl with a flat bill.. . . . (b) to lower or bend. . . . (c) to avoid a task.

Q4: Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of the capitalized word which best fits its use as a primary definition in the target sentence.

Q5: Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of the capitalized word which fits its use as a secondary-associationwordin the target sentence. .

Q6: Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of the capitalized word which "doesn't fit" its use as a primary definition in the target sentence.

Sentence C:A new type of credit has just been issued and many people are getting a big CHARGE out of it. . . . Definitions: (a) pleasurable excitement. . . . (b) liability to pay money. . . . (c) the amount of chemical energy stored in a battery.

Q7: Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of the capitalized word which best fits its use as a primary definition in the target sentence.

Q8: Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of the capitalized word which fits its use as a secondary-associationwordin the target sentence. .

Q9: Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of the capitalized word which "doesn't fit" its use as a primary definition in the target sentence.

Sentence D: A new drive-in restaurant has just been opened for people on diets who want to CURB their appetites. . . . Definitions: (a) a chain or strap passed around a horse's lower jaw. . . . (b) the stone or concrete edging along a street. . . . (c) to restrain, check, control.

Q10: Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of the capitalized word which best fits its use as a primary definition in the target sentence.

Q11: Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of the capitalized word which fits its use as a secondary-associationwordin the target sentence. .

Q12: Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of the capitalized word which "doesn't fit" its use as a primary definition in the target sentence.

Sentence E new mini-sized cell phone is now available for people who enjoy SMALL talk. Definitions: (a) not large or big. . . . (b) of little importance, trivial. . . . (c) gentle or low

Q12: Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of the capitalized word which best fits its use as a primary definition in the target sentence.

Q14: Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of the capitalized word which fits its use as a secondary-associationwordin the target sentence. .

Q15: Please designate (a, b, or c) the definition of the capitalized word which "doesn't fit" its use as a primary definition in the target sentence.

ANSWERS. . . . Q1-c, Q2-a, Q3-b [the sentence refers to career, not to a person]. . . . Q4-c, Q5-a, Q6-b [avoid and waterfowl fit better than lower/bend]. . . . Q7-a, Q8-b, Q9-c [excitement and money fit charge and money better than battery]. . . . Q10-c [restrain fits curb perfectly], Q11-b, Q12-c [a drive-in has nothing to do with horses and their jaws]. . . . Q13-b [physical size doesn't fit talk], Q14-a [not large fits min-sized], Q15 [gentle or low doesn't fit with either talk or mini-sized]/

APPENDIX THREE. . . . A pun-based multiple meaning dictionary project for fourth graders

Dear Researcher. . . .The purpose of this project is to help your fellow students understand how punning sentences work as a first step toward making up original jokes of their own.Your research should focus upon the key word (capitalized) in the punning sentences that appear below (many of them have appeared in humor books written for children.Here are the steps you should follow in this project.

1) Locate a family size dictionary to use as your information source.Practically considered this means about 60,000 word entries and roughly 1,500 pages.The most popular and reasonably priced today are Webster's New World College Dictionary (WNW), the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary (MW), and the American Heritage College Dictionary (AH)

2) Locate the dictionary entry for each capitalized key word in joke sentences you have chosen to research.

3) In the word entry locate a numbered definition which in your opinion BEST FITS the key word as used in its joke sentence.Write down the identification material which precedes your first definition, followed by the definition itself (you can shorten the definition for convenience if you wish).

4) Then locate a numbered definition which in your opinion makes sense as a SECONDARY ASSOCIATION in the sentence, thereby playing an important role in creating the "double meaning" humor in the sentence.Then do the same for your second definition.

5) After this locate a third numbered definition which in your opinion DOESN'T FIT the key word as used in the joke sentence.

6)Write a short explanation (no more than 25 words) of why in your opinion the third definition does NOT fit with the others.

Here is an illustrative key word sentence: "A sardine factory in San Diego went bankrupt and CANned all its employees."

Step 1). . . .Dictionary choice: Webster's New World Collegiate Dictionary (WNW)

Step 2). . . .CAN-2 (CAN-1 is the helper word, as in "Can I leave now?"). . . .

Step 3). . . . The best-fit punning definition in the WNW entry for CAN-1. . . Def.VT (transitive verb)-2: to dismiss, discharge.

Step 4). . . . The secondary association definition in the WNW entry for CAN-1. . . Def. 1: a container, usually made of metal with a separate cover

Step 5). . . . Step 4. . . . A third "doesn't fit definition in WNW for CAN-1. . . .Def. 5: prison

Step 6. . . . A sample explanation:The third definition located (Def. 5 in WNW) refers to "prison," which has nothing to do with a sardine factory and nothing to do with employees being dismissed or discharged.[We'll ignore the far-fetched suggestion that sardines in a can might be thought of as sardines in a prison.]

Target punning-sentences for dictionary research. . . . As research targets please choose FIVE of the following punning sentences and analyze them via the five step process presented above.

1) A pretzel baker in Las Vegas closed his store because he got tired of making crooked DOUGH.

2) Many massage therapists RUB their clients the wrong way.

3) Because of a strike at Forest Lawn cemetery, grave digging is now being done by SKELETON crews.

4) Electricians like to discuss CURRENT events.

5) Airplane pilots LOOK DOWN on people who don't fly.

6) The New York Times reporter had a big SCOOP with his new ice cream flavor story.

7) A new thermometer has recently been invented by a scientist with many DEGREES.

8) A new shelter has just been opened to provide unhappy horses with a STABLE environment.

9) According to local TV the broom factory that just burned down was just another BRUSH fire.

10) People still crash houseboat parties by just BARGE-ing in.

11) Come to our Scrabble contest and sit down for a SPELL.

12) The winner's in last week's art contest were determined by a DRAWING.

13) Geneticists tell us that big noses usually RUN in some families.

14)During my nephew's last trip to Africa several leopards were SPOTted.

15) Two antennas met on a roof, fell in love and got married. The ceremony wasn't much, but the RECEPTION was excellent.

16) A jumper cable walks into a bar. The bartender says, "I'll serve you, but don't START anything."

17) A man walks into a bar with a slab of ASPHALT under his arm and  says,"A beer please, and one for the road."

18) Two hydrogen atoms meet. One says "I've lost my electron."  The other says, "Are you sure?"  The first replies, "Yes, I'm POSITIVE."

Special note. . . .The puns we've looked at can fairly be called "homographic" puns (literally "same writing") because they involve one specific spelled form with two or definitions that can be located in the dictionary.In contrast a "homophonic" pun (literally "same sound" would be one like "an employee in an automobile factorywas fired for taking an unauthorized break," since it uses multiple spelling forms, namely, BREAK and BRAKE. . . . There's no reason why you can't extend your research to include multiple-spelling puns and other elements (phrases, near-miss pronunciations, etc.).But for practical purposes, your dictionary will work best for you if you work with single-spelling word entry targets.

Supplementary research target. . . . Here are pronunciation pun-challenges to look at.You can indicate the pronunciation of each homograph by citing a rhyming word, as in SOUND for wound-1 and TUNED for would-2.You can indication stressed-syllables differences by capitalization, as in proDUCE for produce-1 and PROduce for produce-2.
 
1) The bandage was wound around the wound.

2) The farm was used to produce produce.

3) The dump was so full that it had to refuse more refuse.

4) We must polish the Polish furniture.

5) He could lead if he would get the lead out.

6) The soldier decided to desert his dessert in the desert.

7) Since there is no time like the present, he thought it was time to present the present.

8) A bass was painted on the head of the bass drum

9) When shot at, the dove dove into the bushes.

10) I did not object to the object.

11) The insurance was invalid for the invalid.

12) There was a row among the oarsmen about how to row.

13) They were too close to the door to close it

14) The buck does funny things when the does are present.

15) A seamstress and a sewer fell down into a sewer line.

16) To help with planting, the farmer taught his sow to sow.

17) The wind was too strong to wind the sail.

18) Upon seeing the tear in the painting I shed a tear.

19) I had to subject the subject to a series of tests.

20) How can I intimate this to my most intimate friend?